Known as the ‘powerhouse of the cell’, mitochondria produce an enriched form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) on a moment-by-moment basis. They are a highly dynamic organelle that communicates bidirectionally with the rest of the cell.
They also provide the cellular energy needed to maintain cell growth and to reorganize organelles as cells divide.
What are Mitochondria?
Mitochondria are semi-autonomous organelles that provide the majority of energy for most eukaryotic cells. They are found in almost all cells but are most abundant in high-energy demand tissues such as heart muscle and liver. In human beings, mitochondria provide about 90% of the energy needed for these vital tissues and for most other cells as well.
Modern mitochondria are similar to their prokaryote symbiotic ancestors, with a membrane-bound inner and outer compartments separated by the intermembrane space. The outer membrane is smooth and varies in shape from a round blob to a long rod, while the inner membrane has lots of folds that are called cristae. These structures increase the surface area of the inner membrane and help it perform its many functions to make energy.
The outer membrane is highly porous and allows ions and small molecules to pass freely. However, large proteins cannot enter the mitochondria from the cytoplasm without the aid of specialized membrane transport proteins. The inner membrane has a pore-forming protein that forms a channel for electrons to flow through it, and the resulting membrane potential is used to drive ATP synthesis.
This electron transport process generates a lot of free radicals that can damage cell components such as proteins and DNA. To prevent this, the mitochondria produce their own antioxidant enzymes.
In addition to energy production, mitochondria perform a variety of other essential functions for the cell. These include regulating the citric acid cycle, producing heat, controlling the concentration of calcium and producing certain steroids.
They also play a role in programmed cell death, known as apoptosis, by releasing the protein cytochrome c into the intermembrane space to initiate the apoptotic pathway.
Researchers believe that mitochondria are important in maintaining the health of the entire body. This is because mitochondria can be influenced by lifestyle factors such as diet and exercise, which can affect the efficiency of the mitochondria to produce energy. Poor mitochondrial function can result in a lack of energy in the cells, which can lead to cellular dysfunction and ultimately disease. Therefore, maintaining a healthy lifestyle with regular exercise, daily consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables, control of appetite and avoiding sugary drinks can help prevent mitochondrial disease and promote a long, healthy life.
What are the Functions of Mitochondria?
In addition to being the energy powerhouse of the cell, mitochondria have many other vital functions. They are incredibly dynamic organelles that communicate bidirectionally with the rest of the cell on a moment to moment basis. This communication includes adjusting the production of ATP and monitoring calcium levels to coordinate their activity with other parts of the cell.
The general role of mitochondria is to perform cellular respiration, taking in nutrients and turning them into energy. They do this by converting them to adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy source used by cells to function. The process is called oxidative phosphorylation, and it involves three steps:
Mitochondria also help recycle cellular parts. They do this by removing waste products such as carbon dioxide and lactic acid, and they also provide precursor molecules for protein synthesis. Additionally, they are involved in the urea cycle, which converts nitrogen atoms from various molecules into ammonia, or urine.
When a cell is stressed, the production of ATP decreases, and this triggers changes in other cellular processes. To compensate for this change, the mitochondria send a signal to the nucleus that affects the expression of nuclear genes. One of the ways this happens is through the use of proteins that are dual-localized to both mitochondria and chloroplasts. These proteins are thought to establish a crosstalk between the nucleus and mitochondria to ensure fine coordination of activities.
The inner membrane of the mitochondria has many folds, known as cristae, that increase its surface area. This allows for more places for chemical reactions to occur and increases ATP production. The matrix, which is inside the inner membrane, contains hundreds of enzymes and is where most of the ATP is produced.
In addition, the inner membrane has no porins, which means it is impermeable to most molecules. Molecules must pass through it by using special transporters. This allows for the regulation of calcium levels in the cell, which is essential to the activation of almost all biochemical pathways. This is why the inner membrane has protein channels that open in response to high concentrations of calcium outside the mitochondria.
What are the Differences between Mitochondria in Plants and Mitochondria in Animals?
Although mitochondria perform the same functions in plant and animal cells, there are some differences between them. For example, in plant cells, mitochondria are found in the cytoplasm and are associated with structures called vacuoles. Vacuoles store water and other substances. They also help maintain the turgidity of the cell. In contrast, in animal cells, mitochondria are found in the mitochondrial matrix and are associated with a structure called the mitochondrion. The mitochondrion is a double membrane that contains a region called the matrix, which houses DNA, RNA, and ribosomes. The mitochondrial matrix is responsible for converting glucose to energy in the form of ATP.
In addition to generating energy, the mitochondria is involved in a number of other important cellular processes. These include oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondrial protein translation, and calcium signaling. In addition, the mitochondria is also responsible for regulating the cell’s redox balance. When there is an imbalance in the redox balance, the mitochondria sends signals to the cytosol that can lead to apoptosis or necrosis. This regulation occurs through a process called conformational change. When apoptosis is induced, the mitochondria releases a protein known as Bcl-xL, which inhibits the release of cytochrome c into the cytosol. This prevents apoptosis and allows the cell to survive [38].
Another difference between mitochondria in plants and animal cells is that plant mitochondria have a large genome. In comparison, the mitochondria in animal cells contain a much smaller genome. Furthermore, plant mitochondria cannot oxidise fatty acids. However, despite these differences, the mitochondria in plant and animal cells perform the same functions.
The presence of mitochondria in both plant and animal cells is evidence of the close relationship between these two life forms. In fact, the last common ancestor of animals and plants included a chloroplast, an organelle that performs similar functions to mitochondria. Chloroplasts are structurally similar to mitochondria and have a double membrane with an inner area called the stroma that contains DNA, RNA, ribosomes, and different enzymes.
The similarities between mitochondria and chloroplasts highlight the close link between these two life forms. Both are enslaved bacteria that perform crucial cellular functions. They are both important components of eukaryotic cells and they are essential for producing energy.
What are the Benefits of Mitochondria in Plants?
Plants are multicellular organisms that rely on mitochondria to provide energy for growth and development. They are also involved in photosynthesis and help stabilize the redox balance of the cell. In addition, they also regulate cell-specific protein synthesis. These functions require a delicate balance of cellular stress and energy management, so it is important that the plant’s mitochondria be able to respond appropriately to changing conditions.
One way this happens is by regulating the expression of nuclear genes encoding mitochondrial proteins. This allows the plant to increase or decrease the number of mitochondria as needed. In plants, this occurs during germination and seedling growth as well as in response to environmental stressors such as heat or drought.
Mitochondria can also communicate with other cellular organelles in the cell. This communication is bidirectional and takes place on a moment to moment basis. This communication can affect the production of ATP in the cells, as well as other cellular processes. When this communication is disrupted due to a mutation in the gene that controls it, the result is a cellular dysfunction.
Another function that mitochondria performs is to help control cellular respiration. They do this by releasing cytochrome c into the cytosol when the mitochondria are stressed. The cytochrome c then triggers the release of oxygen to the cytosol, which results in normal cellular respiration and a reduction in cell stress.
The other way that the mitochondria help control cellular respiration is by controlling their own oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). OXPHOS is a complex series of reactions that produces ATP from ADP and phosphate. It is regulated by the availability of oxygen in the cytoplasm and can be modulated by other environmental factors such as light.
Additionally, the presence of mitochondria is crucial for a plant to be able to absorb radiant energy from sunlight for photosynthesis. Chloroplasts, which are located within the mitochondria, contain chlorophyll and can absorb energy from sunlight to produce carbohydrate molecules that serve as food for the plant. The carbohydrate molecules then enter the mitochondria to be converted into ATP.